Science in Translation
The author set himself two major targets in writing this volume. First, to present
the role of translation in the dissemination, throughout history, of scientific
knowledge; and second, to underpin this claim for a vital role for translation by
means of case studies which illustrate its contribution to the development of Western
science. The reader thus expects from the outset a major work involving breadth
and depth of reading across not just centuries, but millennia, with examples from
all eras. The author does not disappoint the reader, demanding though these expectations
may be. There is clear evidence of a sense of mission, of personal commitment, of
a long-term wide-ranging devotion to the project, which guarantees the meeting of
expectations and the fulfillment of these promises. It is not possible, within the
constraints of this review, to do more than hint at the wealth and complexity of
the discussions offered for the enlightenment of the reader.
Translated texts are sometimes the only evidence of previous texts, which have been
replaced through plagiarism.
The author introduces his labour of love through a discussion of how knowledge of
astronomy has been disseminated, from different cultures including ancient Greece,
Syria, Persia and India, through Arab civilisations and the Roman Empire, into medieval
times. According to the author, the translation of astronomy—as the oldest
of sciences—constitutes a significant weight of documentary evidence of interlingual
transfer, of translational norms which differ according to the receiving culture
and the era. Equally importantly, translated texts are sometimes the only evidence
of previous texts, which have been replaced through plagiarism; this approach to
the dissemination of knowledge often resulted in the disappearance of the original
text, although through reconstruction from different (translated) versions a hypothetical
model of the original can be constructed. We learn how the translation of technical
manuals in the Hellenistic era gave way to the study of rhetoric and the tools of
persuasion as the means to humanitas and to social action through oratory, with
a concomitant loss of materials conveying scientific knowledge. In the Roman empire,
translation through rewriting (inventio) and as contamination (compilation of segments
from different works) were two approaches adopted to the transfer of Greek literature
and learning, with the aim of replacing these by Roman texts. In their narrow selection
of scientific texts for translation, the Romans effectively excluded much of Greek
thought—shades of Venuti and translation hegemony! Astronomy represented moral
philosophy, descriptions of the universe and astrology, all of which were essential
to the maintenance of a strong and far-flung empire. The benefits of enrichment
to Latin through translation are not ignored,
The transfer of Greek thought into Syriac (form of Aramaic) was the precursor to
its transfer into Arabic via the Syriac versions. This mediating role has been neglected
as has the whole question of science in Syriac, which for the author, enjoyed a
significant influence and sophistication, contributing to the linguistic diversity
of the Near East. For the author, this raises issues of the cultural prestige of
a language, with a shift in focus from the translated, Syriac text, back to the
Greek source text as the source of 'truth,' particularly in relation to the Bible.
It was in reaction to translations of astronomical discourse in Syriac that key
translators began to debate the merits of different approaches to translating Greek
works into Arabic, as well as, through Severus, consideration of the "local
nature of knowledge" (75), with language as the medium for the substance of
science.
Texts from Persia and India also contributed to Islamic astronomy, bringing together
elements of Greek science, through translation into Arabic from various languages
of knowledge already translated from Greek into these languages. Translation facilitated
a continual exchange of knowledge. The author discusses the 'Hellenisation of Muslim
intellectuals' (89) and the way in which this knowledge was adapted to the needs
of Islam. Again, the choice of texts for translation was a privilege of the ruling
classes, with astrology enabling prediction, alchemy promising creation and control
of wealth and medicine alleviation of suffering; all of these had utilitarian purposes.
This focus on 'useful' texts gave way to greater freedom for translators to select
the best examples of abstract knowledge (around the 9th century). The author discusses
how techniques of translation shifted as the aim and focus similarly shifted, with
linguistic changes occurring in Arabic through translation. By the 11th century
the major body of knowledge was, for the author, conveyed through the Arabic language.
Europe of the 13th century began to acquire scientific knowledge in part through
Arabic texts, with the increase of trade with Islam and the centres of Muslim life
in Toledo, Granada and Cordova, with their activities in Translation. The import
of paper and writing instruments triggered a major change in reading trends and
a further source for translation flourished, in the form of letters, diaries, poems
etc. Linguistic and cultural enrichment ensued, although translation in Europe was
more a case of individual choices, and less of royal patronage, and translators
from Latin reflected more consciously on their techniques than did Arabic translators.
Consistency of choices was not the norm, techniques and methods varied according
to individual competences Medieval traditions and their origins, from Boethius and
St Jerome, and methods ranged from literalism to interpretation. The Almagest (Arabic
title of Ptolemy's Syntaxis Mathematica) is taken as a significant case study of
translation from Greek into Arabic and then into Latin. Bacon (1269) reacted against
the trend of translation of Greek knowledge from Arabic, preferring the original
sources and querying the possibility of full transfer of knowledge into any target
language. Arabic translations came to be seen as derivative and Greek sources regained
an authoritative status.
The section on Science in the non-Western world takes into consideration the origins
of science in modern Japan and how translators contributed to the introduction of
Western knowledge, a transfer which took place under foreign influences during the
19th century in particular, by a process of adaptation and adoption, with split
allegiances to different sources (e.g. both German and English for chemistry). The
author situates this development in a discussion of the evolution of the Japanese
language, and the influence of China in this, followed by exposure to Western languages
which resulted in changes in punctuation, range of ideograms and direction of writing,
what the author describes as an 'overlap of graphic-historical deposits' (198).
The main interest of Japanese scientific discourse, for the author, is its accessibility
to the average college-educated person, due to the nature of ideographs which highlight
the etymology of the term through its components. Style and graphic richness of
scientific discourse are discussed, together with cultural context and the status
of European literature being translated into Japanese, mainly of scientific texts,
with a concomitant attempt to 'nativise' this knowledge. The author touches on the
influence of the Jesuits in the choice of texts for translation. By the early 1900s
Japanese scholars were beginning to rely on knowledge of other languages for the
pursuit of knowledge and by 1920 English was becoming the lingua franca for this
purpose.
A chapter on Japanese Science in the making looks at different Western influences
on the body of knowledge in Japanese, including Dutch, which the Japanese, through
trade contacts, saw as a source language, but which was in fact a repository of
translated texts from English, Latin and other languages. The need to render new
concepts drove the creation of new character combinations—neologisms—based
on semantic equivalents. Chemistry, botany and anatomy all inspired new translation
strategies. The author concludes this chapter with a reminder of the political,
literary, philosophical and scientific issues that drove linguistic change through
translation.
The third section looks at the Contemporary Context, seeking to address the question
of translation as "a continuing formative influence in the making of scientific
knowledge" (253). The presumed universalism of scientific discourse may be
an obstacle to the development of translation techniques; conversely, to consider
the cultural and philosophical aspects, and the determining role of linguistic frameworks,
is to accord translation of scientific texts its true weight of influence. The question
of 'world Englishes' as a lingua franca for science, with the differing norms related
to different forms of English, is illustrated by reference to scientific English
in India, to Internet science and to geology (the latter being compared across English
and French to see different stylistic features). Comparison of citation behaviour
in English and Chinese highlights differences in approach, from respect of authority
(greater borrowing, seen as plagiarism in the West) to textual structure and use
of critical evaluation.
Finally, the author concludes with a discussion of the extent of the contribution
of translation to the existing body of scientific knowledge. The history of language
is seen as integral to the history of science, and the transfer of scientific knowledge
across borders has generated language evolution and adaptation.
So what is gained in translation? For the author, 'no area of knowledge is entirely
separable from its forms' (272). Thus linguistic change, driven by the need to transfer
knowledge through translation, is a major 'gain.' Technical discourse is a language
for a specific purpose, and one might expect the translator not to have to deal
with issues of culture and psychology. However, as the author has demonstrated,
translation of scientific knowledge over the ages has been dependent on far more
than simple recreation of LSP and has given rise to shifts in styles, techniques,
strategies and perceptions of the role of translation. The power of translation
lies in its role as a force for innovation and adaptation, with the possibility
of many texts, multiple versions and the question of the role of the 'original,'
as of the role of translated text as a new 'original.' Translation has 'multiplied'
science by increasing the scope and diversity of texts and discourses.
The author ends this erudite, complex and far-ranging history with a series of questions
which relate to concepts of reception and interpretation, of effects and contributing
factors to the process of translation, all of which continue to be central to the
discipline of contemporary Translation Studies.
This article was originally published at Translation Journal (http://accurapid.com/journal).
By Beverly Adab, Ph.D.